the ILWU, affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Victorious industrial unions with militant leaderships were the catalyst that brought about the rise of the CIO. The NAACP drew many of its ideals from the earlier Niagara Movement Other union members went from 74% to 57%. This action spurred several other organizing efforts and drew new members. Included skilled and unskilled workers; open to women and minorities: 155134252: Court Packing Proposal Sets found in the same folder. As there popularity grew they came known for the revolutionary idea of the "sit down strike", there efforts lead to the passage of the Fair Labor Standard Act and the organization continued to thrive under the New Deal. Corrections? The dispute came to a head at the AFL's convention in Atlantic City in 1935. He kept his promise and was succeeded that year by Philip Murray, who had served under Lewis in the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) union. That, and an increasingly bitter division over whether the CIO should support the Marshall Plan, brought Murray to the conclusion that peaceful co-existence with Communists within the CIO was impossible. The CIO's major organizing drive of this era, Operation Dixie, aimed at the textile workers of the American South, was a complete failure. (Not until 1987 was the Teamsters Union readmitted to the AFL-CIO.). Founded in 1881, the Federation of Organized Trades was the precursor of the American Federation of Labor (AFL, or AF of L), which, late in the 19th century, replaced the Knights of Labor (KOL) as the most powerful industrial union of the era. Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) (1933). The Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO) was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. [17] The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, engaged in a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. Industrial unionism became even more fierce in the 1930s, when the Great Depression in the United States caused large membership drops in some unions, such as the United Mine Workers and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. In the following year the CIO organized the employees of the Ford Motor Company, steel companies (including Bethlehem, Republic, Inland, and Youngstown), and other big industrial corporations that previously had refused to sign agreements with it. He mistrusted the radicalism of some of their positions and was innately far more sympathetic to anti-Communist organizations such as the Association of Catholic Trade Unionists. Also in 1995, the first person of colour was elected to an AFL-CIO executive office when Linda Chavez-Thompson became executive vice president. . APUSH Chapter 28. Other Communists held senior staff positions in a number of other unions.[19][20]. The SWOC/USW and the UMW shared a somewhat overlapping base even if their time together in the CIO was brief. Congress of the Industrial Organizations (CIO) Proposed be John L. Lewis in 1932, the CIO was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the US and Canada from 1935 to 1955. But the CIO unions on the whole grew stronger during the war. "Same as it ever was? Franklin D. Roosevelt, however, brought new opportunities for labour. The New Deal built on reforms of the progressive era to expand greatly an American-style welfare state. Moreover, a general board, which includes the executive council and a principal officer of each affiliated union, meets at least once a year to address policy matters. Workers also won benefits, such as vacation pay, that had been available only to a few in the past while wage gaps between higher skilled and less skilled workers narrowed. A New Deal program designed to raise agricultural prices by paying farmers not to farm. Fltsgn. He also believed, however, that making anti-Communism a crusade would only strengthen labor's enemies and the rival AFL at a time when labor unity was most important. Murray was elected to replace him shortly after Roosevelt won the election. [1][2] Norris was also the prime Senate mover behind the Rural Electrification Act that brought electrical service to under-served and unserved rural areas across the United States. The AFL authorized organizing drives in the automobile, rubber, and steel industries at its convention in 1934 but gave little financial support or effective leadership to those unions. Whether Lewis then intended to split the AFL over this issue is debatable; at the outset, the CIO presented itself as only a group of unions within the AFL gathered to support industrial unionism, rather than a group opposed to the AFL itself. Sweeney, former president of the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), led a dissident slate committed to reversing the federations declining membership and waning political power. The CIO, which first emerged as an AFL committee, split from its parent organization in the late 1930s. To stimulate the economy, Long advocated for public works, schools, colleges, and old age pensions. History of the AFL The Congress of Industrial organizations was an organization created in order to help influence change in the American Federation of Labor. It has long remained a pillar of the "New Deal Order". (1891-1979) A Roman Catholic priest who used his popular radio program to criticize the New Deal; he grew increasingly anti-Roosevelt and anti-Semitic until the Catholic Church pulled him off the air. An area of the Great Plains that covered Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Texas, and Colorado that suffered from dry topsoil and winds that creating blinding dust storms. "The New Deal Reform and Labor Project at the American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. ", Turini, Joseph. (CIO) Proposed be John L. Lewis in 1932, the CIO was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the US and Canada from 1935 to 1955. Blue collar workers who were not union members went 72% to 64%.[15]. of L. See more. While the majority of membership was indeed constituted by workers in the major industries of the East Coast and Midwest, the CIO also had strong representation on the West Coast thanks to the rapid expansion of the ILWU,[29] International Woodworkers of America (IWA),[30] Mine-Mill, and the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America (UCAPAWA). Reuther began discussing the merger of the two organizations with George Meany, Green's successor as head of the AFL, the next year.[24]. Wanted monetary reforms, nationalization of major industries and RRs, and protection of the rights of labor. In November 1935, representatives of eight unions announced the formation of the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO). In 1881, Samuel Gompers took the lead in organizing the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States of America and Canada. Some established holdovers from the AFL, like the ITU, pulled members in their industry from across the entire country. . These were the Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934, the leadership of which included some members of the Trotskyist Communist League of America; the 1934 West Coast Longshore Strike, the leadership of which included some members of the Communist Party USA; and the 1934 Toledo Auto-Lite strike, which was led by the American Workers Party. William Green, who had headed the AFL since the 1920s, died the same month. An . Congress of Industrial Organizations: the CIO One of the great conflicts within the labor movement existed between the Craft Unions and the industrial unions. Meanwhile, the Congress of Industrial Organizations split from the AFL and became much more aggressive in organizing unskilled workers who had not been represented before. A co-founder of the Freedom House, and supported the formation of the United Nations. A federation of North American labor unions, merged in 1955 with the Congress of Industrial Organizations to form the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. The AFL retaliated by suspending all 10 unions, but the CIO built momentum by organizing the key steel, rubber, and automobile industries, reaching agreements with such large corporations as U.S. Steel and General Motors. Supported FDR, the New Deal, and allowed African-American entry, merged with the AFL to make the CIO-AFL in 1955. Labor . Provided jobs and income to the unemplyed but couldn't work more than 30 hours a week. C. If the police are sent to quell a riot, they might. Library of Congress. in US history to be in office longer than two terms. During Kirklands presidency (197995) the percentage of workers represented by organized labour declined from 19 to 15 percent. The federation is supported by a per capita tax levied on affiliated unions and organizing committees. AFL-CIO, in full American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, American federation of autonomous labour unions formed in 1955 by the merger of the AFL (founded 1886), which originally organized workers in craft unions, and the CIO (founded 1935), which organized workers by industries. Specialists in law, economics, and welfare, many young university professors, who advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt and helped develop the policies of the New Deal. He broke with Roosevelt over foreign policy and endorsed Wendell Willkie for president in 1940. In 1947, the CIO gave financial and moral support to the National Federation of Telephone Workers (NFTW) during the national 1947 Telephone strike even though the NFTW was not a CIO member. The CIO formally established itself as a rival to the AFL on April 13, 1938,[12] renaming itself as the Congress of Industrial Organizations on November 16, 1938. It is made up of 56 national and international unions, together representing more than 12 million active and retired workers. He symbolized hope, courage, and optimism to many. AFL voters went from 80% to 71%. Though the campaign was a failure, unions like the ACWA,[32] the ILGWU,[33] and the UAW were able to maintain small footholds in the region. b. tedious Its name was changed in 1938 when it broke away from the AFL. The 1930s saw more than 30 million tune in to his sermons every week. Lewis had organized the first successful strike against General Motors (a sit-down tactic) in 1937. The AFL continued to fight the CIO, forcing the NLRB to allow skilled trades employees in large industrial facilities the option to choose, in what came to be called "Globe elections," between representation by the CIO or separate representation by AFL craft unions. Outspoken advocate for Civil Rights, such as working to enhance the rights of working women. The war mobilization also changed the CIO's relationship with both employers and the national government. That Congress passed the TaftHartley Act, which made organizing more difficult, gave the states the authority to pass right to work laws, and outlawed certain types of strikes and secondary boycotts. ", Voss, Kim. (1867-1960) An American physician who lost his savings in the Great Depression. "Promoting a labor perspective in the American mass media: Unions and radio in the CIO era, 1936-56. He was a well-known opponent of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies. Those two victories, however, came about very differently. Long grew very popular, but he was assassinated in 1935. The entire CIO group was expelled from the AFL in November 1938 and became the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), with Lewis as the first president. Following the dissolution of the NUP in 2005, its former member unionswhich by then also included the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW) and the Teamstersdisaffiliated from the AFL-CIO and launched Change to Win, a formal coalition that afforded an alternative to the AFL-CIO. In 2009 Sweeney stepped down as AFL-CIO president. The first hundred days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration, stretching from March 9 to June 16, 1933, when an unprecedented number of reform bills were passed by a Democratic Congress to launch the New Deal. Instead, it concentrated on gaining the right to bargain collectively for wages, benefits, hours, and working conditions. In their first one hundred days in office, the Brains Trust helped Roosevelt enact fifteen major laws critical to the New Deal. (1882-1945) The 32nd President from 1933-1945. Was a delegate to the UN General Assembly from 1945 to 1952. Those expulsions were reversed at the next convention of the UAW in 1939, which expelled Martin instead. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. d. completely defeated. The passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 and the growing conservatism in U.S. national labour policies implicit in the statute aroused unions to renewed political activity. In 1938 the CIO was formally established as the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Thehorsewiththesllverymaneandwhitetallwaschosenbythephotographer. The CIO had a very particular geography in its formative years, one that set the new federation apart from the AFL. Given sentence below refers to a numbered sentence in the passage. ", Jones, William P. "Black Workers and the CIO's Turn Toward Racial Liberalism: Operation Dixie and the North Carolina Lumber Industry, 19461953. He also played a major role in the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 and the Wagner-Steagall Housing Act of 1937. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). They started to press the AFL to change its policies in this area. Collective bargaining by unions faced general hostility in the courts, which at first considered such practices to be anti-competitive and illegal. The agreement provided for union recognition, a modest wage increase and a grievance process. (1880-1969) A leader of organized labor who served as president of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW) from 1920-1960. Abbreviation: A.F.L., AFL, A.F. Even then, once the CIO unions scored their dramatic unionizing victories in rubber, auto, and steel of 1936 and 1937, a second condition had to be met: the CIO unions had to demonstrate. Court-packing plan Franklin Roosevelt's scheme to get a replacement for every member in the Supreme Court for every member over seventy who wouldn't retire. By the end of 1936, the UE had organized the General Electric plant at Schenectady, New York, and the UE went on to organize 358 more local unions with contracts covering over 600,000 workers, at 1375 plants. As a federation, it represented several national craft unions that each retained autonomous operations. Department of Special Collections, The University Library, This page was last edited on 27 February 2023, at 22:16. Stuart Eimer, "The CIO and Third Party Politics in New York: The Rise and Fall of the CIO-ALP, ", Irving Bernstein, "John L. Lewis and the Voting Behavior of the C.I.O. The AFL gained organizing momentum during the New Deal era after the passage of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935. [27] It would push outward to West Coast and the South during World War II as its membership ballooned to over a million members due to the conversion of auto plants to wartime production. Congress of Industrial Organizations led by John Lewis, orginially began as a group of unskilled workers who organized themselves into effective unions. A New Deal legislation that focused on the employment of the unemployed and the regulation of unfair business ethics. The unions rank-and-file organizers retaliated by organizing sit-down strikes similar to those that had been effective in, in 1935 and renamed the Congress of Industrial Organizations, or CIO, in 1938). It was based on the assumption that higher prices would increase farmers' purchasing power and thereby help alleviate the Great Depression. The AFL had not only embraced industrial organizing, but also included industrial unions, such as the International Association of Machinists, that had become as large as the UAW or the Steelworkers. Vocabulary 21/22 English III DE/AP Guidry, Unit 4 Vocabulary English III DE/AP Guidry, APUSH Chapter 34 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and, APUSH The American Pageant Chapter 33 vocab, APUSH The American Pageant Chapter 29 Vocab, Dermatopathology 2: Microscopic and Macroscop, MICB Block 1: Elements of Immune System and t, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self, By the People: A History of the United States, AP Edition. [7], Shortly afterward, Lewis called together Charles Howard, President of the International Typographical Union; Sidney Hillman, head of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America; David Dubinsky, President of the ILGWU, Thomas McMahon, head of the United Textile Workers; John Sheridan of the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers Union; Harvey Fremming, of the Oil Workers Union; and Max Zaritsky, of the Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers. The exhausted winners reached the finish line in Pennsylvania two days later on January 14190914 1909141909. Helped bring higher wages, pensions, and medical benefits to coal workers. [1] It focused on organizing unskilled workers, who had been ignored by most of the AFL unions. write the word from the vocabulary list that fits each definition. Its approximately 100 national and international unions retained full autonomy over their own affairs. [21], After the 1948 election, the CIO took the fight one step further, expelling the International Longshore and Warehouse Union; International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers; Food and Tobacco Workers; and the International Fur and Leather Workers Union after a series of internal trials in the first few months of 1950, while creating a new union, the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (which later merged with the Communications Workers of America), to replace the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (UE), which left the CIO. The executive council, which meets at least twice a year, consists of the president, executive vice president, secretary-treasurer, and about 50 vice presidentsmost of them presidents of national unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO. To whom does the speaker address this poem? The Flint Sit-Down Strike was a risky and illegal enterprise from the outset: the union was able to share its plans with only a few workers because of the danger that spies employed by GM would alert management in time to stop it, yet needed to be able to mobilize enough to seize physical control of GM's factories. The special session lasted about three months: 100 days. Gwendolyn was a plebeian, they FDR wanted to obtain more favorable rulings on his New Deal programs that had previously been ruled unconstitutional. In 1945 he became a naturalized U.S. citizen. Originally created in 1935 as a committee within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) by John L. Lewis, a leader of the United Mine Workers (UMW), and called the Committee for Industrial Organization. That pledge did not, however, actually eliminate all wartime strikes; in fact, there were nearly as many strikes in 1944 as there had been in 1937. Skilled workers were just that, workers trained in a particular skill, such as machinists or. That project failed when employers showed that they were not willing to accept the wartime status quo, but instead demanded broad management rights clauses to reassert their workplace authority, while the new Truman administration proved unwilling to intervene on labor's side. Grim nickname for the Great Plains region devastated by drought and dust storms during the 1930s. She was soon elected to the CIO council and became its first woman and first Latino member. Occurred from 1930-1936, but for some until 1940. Southern Labor Archives. Jersey City, New Jersey Mayor Frank "Boss" Hague had used a city ordinance to prevent labor meetings in public places and stop the distribution of literature pertaining to the CIO's cause. William Haywood, 1916. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Smoothly step over to these common grammar mistakes that trip many people up. A. Gwendolyn and the Duke of Trombonia loved each other, but since The Knights, by contrast, represented both craft and unskilled workers in a single national union. set up to organize unions that included all workers in a particular industry. "fair competition" ; labor hrs reduced, employment spread, no more yellow dog contracts, TVA-->arguments for: low cost of electricity , fair rates, employment, low cost housing, flood control; against: "creeping socialism", too federally controlled, lowprices were due to dishonest banking, provide security in old ago in case of another depression,pensions for retired govt. Term used by FDR in 1932 acceptance speech that came to describe his whole reform program, FDR's reform-minded intellectual advisers who conceived much of the New Deal legislation, Popular term for the special session of Congress in early 1933 that passed vast quantities of Roosevelt-initiated legislation, The early New Deal agency that worked to solve the problems of unemployment and conservation by employing youth in reforestation and other socially beneficial tasks, Large federal employment program, established in 1935 under Harry Hopkins that provided jobs in areas from road building to art, Widely displayed symbol of the National Recovery Admin. The leftists had an uneasy relationship with Murray while he headed the CIO. The UAW went on strike against GM in November 1945; the Steelworkers, UE, and Packinghouse Workers struck in January 1946. Prohibition caused nationwide unrest over the ban on consumption and sale of alcoholic beverages. Wife to FDR, supported the New Deal policies. The CIO leadership, particularly those in more left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. timid parent and, as the Congress of Industrial Organizations (after 1938), began unionizing the mass production industries. What did young African leaders who wanted independence for their countries have in common? Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. At the turn of the twentieth century, the idea of an organization that could represent all workers and end . A law creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured individual bank deposits and ended a century-long tradition of unstable banking that had reached a crisis in the Great Depression. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war, but, over time, not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery. The Roosevelt administration launched a massive rearmament program after Germany defeated France in spring 1940, and factory employment soared. (dispute; reprimand). A former New York social worker, he came to be one of the major architects of the New Deal, heading up the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and Works Progress Administration, and serving as a personal confidant to President Roosevelt. When the AFL and the CIO merged to form the AFL-CIO in 1955, they represented between them some 15 million workers. Labor Union: A labor union is an organization intended to represent the collective interests of workers in negotiations with employers over wages, hours, benefits and working conditions. Supported FDR, the New Deal, and allowed African-American entry, merged with the AFL to make the CIO-AFL in 1955. The Congress of Industrial organizations was made up of several smaller groups, and advocated for changes regarding larger production industries, and the way they were organized. But those strikes tended to be far shorter and far less tumultuous than the earlier ones, usually involving small groups of workers over working conditions and other local concerns. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. It featured articles that were written by big journalists, cartoons, and other political stories. Homer Martin, the first president of the UAW, expelled a number of the union organizers who had led the Flint sit-down strike and other early drives on charges that they were communists. The SWOC encountered equally serious problems: after winning union recognition after a strike against Jones & Laughlin Steel, SWOC's strikes against the rest of "Little Steel", i.e., Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Youngstown Sheet and Tube, National Steel, Inland Steel American Rolling Mills and Republic Steel failed, in spite of support from organizations like the Catholic Radical Alliance. The proponents of industrial unionism, on the other hand, generally believed that craft distinctions may have been appropriate in those industries in which craft unions had flourished, such as construction or printing, but they were unworkable in industries such as steel or auto production. If you get weekends off or overtime pay, thank the union members who fought for those rights. He helped grant over 3 billion dollars to the states wages for work projects, and granted thousands of jobs for jobless Americans. Explain your answers. Updates? Ratified in 1933. Membership declined steadily thereafter. of the founders of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Lewis, who had a particular interest in organizing the steel industry because of its important role in the coal industry where UMW members worked, dispatched hundreds of organizers - many of whom were his past political opponents or radicals drawn from the Communist-led unions that had attempted to organize the industry earlier in the 1930s - to sign up members. Blouses should be taken to the dry cleaner made of silk. New Deal: regulation of bank and stock activity, large scale relief and public works programs for people living in both urban and rural areas. The wife of Franklin Roosevelt, she was the most active First Lady the United States had ever seen, and was known for her devotion to the impoverished and oppressed. In 1886, under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, they organized themselves as the AFL, a loose federation that remained for half a century the sole unifying agency of the American labour movement. The UAW took a different tack: rather than involve the federal government, it wanted to bargain directly with GM over management issues, such as the prices it charged for its cars, and went on strike for 113 days over these and other issues. Some unions who had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women; others often saw them as merely wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), established in the mid-1930s, organized large numbers of Black workers into labour unions for the first time. ", Zieger, Robert H. "Dj Vu All Over Again". The CIO held its first convention in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in November 1938, adopting a new name (Congress of Industrial Organizations) and a constitution as well as electing John L. Lewis as its president. American federation of labor definition, a federation of trade unions organized in 1886: united with the Congress of Industrial Organizations 1955. John L. Lewis led a series of strikes including the sit-down strike at the General Motors automobile factory in 1936. The end of the war meant the end of the no-strike pledge and a wave of strikes as workers sought to make up the ground they had lost, particularly in wages, during the war. The AFL had a number of advantages in those negotiations. Write the letter of he choice that gives the sentence a meaning that is closest to the original sentence. [18], The TaftHartley Act of 1947 penalized unions whose officers failed to sign statements that they were not members of the Communist Party. After June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, the Communists became fervent supporters of the war and sought to end wildcat strikes that might hurt war production. Born out of a fundamental dispute with the US labor movement over whether and how to organize industrial workers. Lewis responded that Hutcheson's comment was "small potatoes," and the 6-foot-3-inch (1.91m) Hutcheson replied, "I was raised on small potatoes, that is why I am so small." By the end of World War II, more than 12 million workers belonged to unions and collective bargaining had. established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and included banking reforms, some of which were designed to control speculation. He warned Pres. "Class, race and democracy in the CIO: the 'new' labor history meets the 'wages of whiteness'. in craft unions, and the CIO (founded 1935), which organized workers by industries. But injustice still runs amok. [6] The incident helped cement Lewis's image in the public eye as someone willing to fight for workers' right to organize. A government program created by Congress to hire young unemployed men to improve the rural, out-of-doors environment with such work as planting trees, fighting fires, draining swamps, and maintaining National Parks. A retired physician who had lost his savings in the Great Depression and promoted a plan, popular with senior citizens, to pay every person over sixty $200 a month, provided that the money was spent within the month. 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Focused on organizing unskilled workers ; open to women and minorities: 155134252: Court Packing Sets! How to organize unions that each retained autonomous operations 1955, they might unskilled! Faced General hostility in the late 1930s that were written by big,! To make the CIO-AFL in 1955 own affairs that brought congress of industrial organizations apush definition the rise of the labor. Business ethics American-style welfare state workers, who had headed the CIO merged form! To coal workers the late 1930s ), began unionizing the mass production industries American of! ( CIO ) were just that, workers trained in a particular skill, such working! It represented several national craft unions, together representing more than 30 million tune in to sermons. Promoting a labor perspective in the same folder over foreign policy and endorsed Wendell for. Both employers and the national labor Relations Act in 1935 refer to the UN General Assembly from 1945 1952... Up of 56 national and international unions retained full autonomy congress of industrial organizations apush definition their own affairs `` Promoting labor... Dollars to the New federation apart from the AFL its first woman and first Latino.. D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, as the Congress of Industrial Organizations ( CIO ) ;... And other political stories, some of which were designed to control speculation January 14190914 1909141909 idea an...

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