The Satimbe mask represents the women ancestors, who are said to have discovered the purpose of the masks by guiding the spirits of the deceased into the afterlife (Davis, 74). This theme was fundamental to the Dogon religion. During the 1890s, a French army was sent into the region for the purpose of establishing colonies. Of the native fauna in the region, large carnivores and ruminants have become rare, with only a few medium-sized mammals being found in the cliffs. This problem has been solved! WebAlthough the Dogon recognize the creator god Amma as the Supreme Being and address prayers and sacrifices to him, the core set of beliefs and practices focuses on ancestor It is truly one of the most impressive regions in Sub-Saharan Africa . "The Nummo foresaw that the original rule of twin births was bound to disappear, and that errors might result comparable to those of the jackal, whose birth was single. In the shadowy world of ancient warfare, one weapon stood out as a true marvel: Greek fire. This was to prevent a being like the Jackal from ever being born on Earth again. [6][7] Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological studies in the Dogon region have been especially revealing about the settlement and environmental history, and about social practices and technologies in this area over several thousands of years. Other specialists are the healers or herbalists (dyodyonune ), who treat the sick, and sorcerers (dyonune ), who cast spells. The population numbers between 400,000 and 800,000. Unfortunately, the majority of these animistic spiritual practices tend to disappear with the younger generations and the widespread adoption of Islam. Ogotemmli classified the Nummo as hermaphrodites. To the southeast of the cliff, the sandy Sno-Gondo Plains are found, and northwest of the cliff are the Bandiagara Highlands. Therefore, its best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publications requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. Dogon society is organized by a patrilineal kinship system. The first occurs immediately after the death of a person, and the second can occur years after the death. Some of the species represented in the area are the doom palm, the baobab, and various leguminous fruit-bearing plants. Les dogon. There is no indigenous political integration above the local (village) or district level. A Blazing Weapon: Unraveling the Mystery of Greek Fire, New Moai Statue Found on Chiles Easter Island Excites Researchers, Curious Mussel Shell Arrowheads in Norways Mountains Confound Archaeologists, 2,000-Year-Old Roman Phallus Could Be Oldest Known Sex Toy, Huge Wari Empire Temple from 800 AD Unearthed in the Highlands of Peru, What is Shambhala? The smallest country of mainland Africa, this small nation can seem quite unremarkable at first glance, being confined only to the length of the Gambia River and Shambhala, which is a Sanskrit word meaning place of peace or place of silence, is a mythical paradise spoken of in ancient texts, including the Kalachakra Tantra and the ancient scriptures of the Zhang Zhung culture which predated Tibetan Buddhism in western Tibet. Following the birth of the child, the couple moves into an unoccupied dwelling in the husband's village and quarter. Organisation sociale des dogon (Soudan Franais). Until the masqueraders have completed their dances, and every ritual has been performed, any misfortune can be blamed on the remaining spirits of the dead (Davis, 68). While the people keep chickens or herds of sheep and goats in Dogon villages, animal husbandry holds little economic value. Economically, the Dogon are no longer as dependent on agriculture as in the past. Conflict. The ritual language, "Sigi so" or "language of the Sigui", which was taught to male dignitaries of the Society of the Masks ("awa"), was considered a poor language. Houses may never be sold because the sites on which they stand belongs to the descendants of the old inhabitants, who have control over who occupies the house. The souls of the just reach paradise, Ardyenne, or the house of god (Amma ginu ), where they live an existence analogous to that which they lived on earth. Dogon funeral rituals come in two parts. Within Dogon culture, an individuals status is determined by position within a family group according to rules of descent and age. Ancient Chinese Earthquake Detector Invented 2,000 Years Ago Really Worked! Kado), a Fulbe word meaning "stranger" or "pagan.". These are two story building with separate areas for men and women. It contained only about a quarter of the full vocabulary of "Dogo so", the Dogon language. The birth of human twins was celebrated in the Dogon culture in Griaule's day because it recalled the "fabulous past, when all beings came into existence in twos, symbols of the balance between humans and the divine". Public opinion is a great regulator of social behavior in Dogon society, not so much for its threats of punishment through shame, but by its withdrawal of satisfaction and love from its erring members. They farm, as well as hunt occasionally, and many Dogon continue to practice an indigenous polytheistic African religion. Marriage into the occupational castessuch as that of blacksmithsis strongly prohibited. Land Tenure. The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made. The escarpment, because of its geology, provided a natural stronghold for several societies. Another 10% practices Christianity. A hogon is a religious figure as well as a temporal authority; the hogon may be hereditary or may be chosen from among the village elderscustom varies from place to place. About 10 percent of the Dogon are Christians. ', This alludes to reports that the Dogon knew of another star in the Sirius system, mm Ya, or a star "larger than Sirius B but lighter and dim in magnitude". After Mali's independence from France in 1960, a 40-kilometer road was built from Bandiagara to Sanga, which further disrupted traditional life. Succession to office is patrilineal (by younger brother). The binou, which is usually in animal form serves as a representation of the ancestor. Grain is stored in granaries. In the political aspect, the Hogon does many things such as being the Chief judge in criminal cases such theft and homicide. The Dogon numbered 500,000 on the eve of Malis independence on On the other hand, private property goes first to the eldest son (who must provide for his siblings), then the younger brother. Expert Answer Introduction. Pern, Stephen (1982). Very much like the lyrics of the famous Elizabeth "Jane" Shore was a fiery and charismatic Englishwoman who made a name for herself as one of the many sultry mistresses of the handsome and powerful English king, Edward IV. The idea has entered the New Age and ancient astronaut literature as evidence that extraterrestrial aliens visited Mali in the distant past. After completion of the dama, the soul departs from the world of the living and goes to the great god Amma. The authority of the household unit is vested in the father, who controls both the economic and ceremonial functions of the family and demands unquestioning obedience from his offspring. African religions: Ritual and religious specialists. Members of these castes are physically separate from the rest of the village and live either at the village edge or outside of it entirely. The Hogon The Hogon is an elderly male, spiritual leader of the Dogon village who lives alone in a hut constructed, furnished, and decorated to symbolize the universe. Such jihads caused the Dogon to abandon their original villages and moved up to the cliffs of Bandiagara for better defense and to escape persecutionoften building their dwellings in little nooks and crannies.[15][17]. Animals are kept more as a symbol of wealth and prestige than for economic necessity. According to Dogon belief, they (hogon) are the "oldest direct descendant of the original ancestor." A. Inheritance. ); Brooklyn Museum (New York City), Female or male figure; probably early 17th century; 40.0 x 7.3 x 7.8cm (1534 x 2 7/8 x 3 in. WebThe Dogon religion is the traditional African beliefs of the Dogon of Mali. [51], In a 1978 critique, skeptic Ian Ridpath concluded: "There are any number of channels by which the Dogon could have received Western knowledge long before they were visited by Griaule and Dieterlen. van Beek (text) (2001). According to Ogotemmli's description of them, the Nummo, whom he also referred to as "Water", had green skinned covered in green hair, and in form were like human from the loins up, but serpent below. 150,000-Year-Old Pipes Baffle Scientists in China: Out of Place in Time? I am sure you are familiar with his legend which states that he was born in a manger surrounded by shepherds, about Petra Historic World Heritage Site Blasted By Flash Floods, about The Classical Gardens of Suzhou: A Sight to Behold, about Denizens of South Africas Cradle of Humankind: The First Walking Apes, about The Unfinished Timurid Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, about The Magnificent Citadel of Erbil - A True Archaeological Sandwich, about Kunta Kinteh - The African Island at the Heart of the Slave Trade. Fruit trees are valued possessions, and although they may be sold, the previous owner reserves the ownership of the field in which they are planted for his own use. During a greeting ritual, the person who has entered the contact answers a series of questions about his or her whole family, from the person who was already there. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. All agree, however, that they learned about the star from Griaule. I View the full answer Previous question Next question Top image: Cliff of Bandiagara Source: Public Domain, Bolland, R. (1991). Ancient Origins 2013 - 2023Disclaimer- Terms of Publication - Privacy Policy & Cookies - Advertising Policy -Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us. "hogon | African religious leader | Britannica", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hogon&oldid=1122616271, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 November 2022, at 14:57. 32, No. [22] They were primarily symbolized by the sun, which was a female symbol in the religion. Within Dogon culture, an individuals status is determined by position within a family group according to rules of descent and age. Dogon door with stylized figures (Wegmann, M/ CC BY 3.0 ). We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. Biographies - Hogon | African Religious Leader | Britannica Hogon live alone and should be celibat [5], The hogon may conduct rituals in the Sanctuaire de Binou, a special building the door of which is blocked with rocks. The Dogon people with whom French anthropologists Griaule and Germaine Dieterlen worked during the 1930s and 1940s had a system of signs which ran into the thousands, including "their own systems of astronomy and calendrical measurements, methods of calculation and extensive anatomical and physiological knowledge, as well as a systematic pharmacopoeia". In the early 1960s the Dogon population was 250,000more than a threefold increase over roughly a forty-year period from the census of 1921, which listed a population of 81,862. In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. The other factor influencing their choice of settlement location was access to water. Religious Beliefs. Marriage is proscribed between members of the same clan or with first or second cousins of different clans. Whether on the high plateau, the cliff-faces, or on the plain, the Dogon have exploited all the elements available to build their villages that reflect their ingenuity and their philosophy of life and death. In certain cultural areas, the Dogon villages comprise numerous granaries, for the most part square with a thatched tapering roof. In addition, men tend the livestock, hunt, and clear and fertilize the fields, whereas women collaborate in sowing, weeding, and harvesting the grain and in raising seasonal crops such as onions. Omissions? European contact was first made in 1857. While digging at a site called Pakaytambo in the southern Peru highlands, anthropologists and archaeologists from the University of IllinoisChicago (UIC) unearthed an ancient Wari ritual complex that was approximately 1,200 years old. The clitoris is considered male, while the foreskin is considered female. The degree of complexity of the ceremonies depends upon the age and status of the deceased male. "[55] Additionally, James Clifford notes that Griaule sought informants best qualified to speak of traditional lore, and deeply mistrusted converts to Christianity, Islam, or people with too much contact with whites. In another case of natures wrath rearing its head, flash floods have struck the iconic world heritage site at Petra, Jordan, forcing the evacuation of 1,700 tourists . [Editor's Note: In this article the established spellings of Kota words have been retained, al, ETHNONYMS: none The Dogon live in compact, occasionally walled villages built up the sides of the escarpment. However I am astonished you can write this article and encourage people to visit with no reference to recent history and the significant insecurity and frequent killings in the area. A good knowledge of French would be helpful when visiting the area, but a multi-lingual guide would be able to translate for anyone unable to speak the language. The Iliad can provide new insights on the role of motherhood among the ancient Greek gods, and by extension, amongst ancient mortal Greek women themselves. Each isolated village or district (canton) in the region has a headman or chief (hogon) who has both religious and judicial responsibilities. Were theonlyPop Archaeology site combining scientific research with out-of-the-box perspectives. WebDiscuss why you would or would not like to be selected as the Hogan within the Dogon culture. Also regional and dialect group names: Chinbok, Chinbon, Dai, Kuku, Lai (s, Karen A unique architecture was adapted to the local environment by using mud bricks (adobe) to build tower-like buildings in the most unlikely places on the Cliff of Bandiagara, including rock shelters. & E.I.K. Durieux-Boon (2004). Many artifacts have been located in caves and sanctuaries in the area which are helping experts to better understand the history and the societies of the Cliff of Bandiagara. Their eyes were red, their tongues forked, and their arms flexible and unjointed.[21]. Some young men will hunt for small game, but wild animals are relatively scarce near villages. It is thus mysterious that there are so few references to the planets in ancient literature. Markets are held every four or five days in areas well removed from the villages. About 1,500 ethnic Dogon in seven villages in southern Mali speak the Bangime language, which is unrelated to the other Dogon languages and presumed by linguists to be an ancient, pre-Dogon language isolate, although a minority of linguists (most notably Roger Blench) hypothesise that it may be related to Proto-Nilo-Saharan.[38]. The Cliff of Bandiagara, a beautiful and unique escarpment, is home to the Dogon people and culture, and because of its worldwide importance, was recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1989. He has an armband with a sacred pearl that symbolises his function. There are two major events at which the Awa perform: the 'sigi' ritual and 'dama' funeral rituals.[35]. Then the Dogon who has entered the contact repeats the ritual, asking the resident how his or her whole family is. The Iraqi city of Erbil is truly magnificent - and in many ways. The largest ginnas are subdivided into several families, or tire togo (sing.). Dogon society is composed of several different sects: Villages are built along escarpments and near a source of water. When a woman leaves her husband, she takes with her only the youngest childthe remaining children stay with the husband's family. Where diseases are considered to be supernaturally based or the result of sorcery, a healer-diviner is called in who determines the cause of the disease (through divination), then offers sacrifices, magical charms, and incantations to bring about a cure. Religious Practitioners. The Dogon territory extends from approximately 1315 to 1500 N and from 130 to 400 W. The population is concentrated in some 300 villages along a 145-kilometer stretch of escarpment called the Cliffs of Bandiagara. In traditional Dogon society, land was transmitted within the family group (ginna, or lineage), and was considered inalienable property. He is in effect a priest (hogon ), who exercises ceremonial functions on behalf of the lineage, and, in conjunction with a council of elders, judicial functions as well. The Kanaga masqueraders, at one point, dance and sit next to the bundkamba, which represents the deceased. Also effective as means of inducing conformity are ridicule and threats of supernatural sanction. [26], Because of the birth of the single-sexed male Jackal, who was born without a soul, all humans eventually had to be turned into single-sexed beings. Then, two things happened: either Chaos or Gaia created the universe as we know it, or Ouranos and Tethys gave birth to the first beings. [32]) Rites of circumcision enable each sex to assume its proper physical identity. The wet season begins in June and continues through October, with cool and hot dry seasons the remainder of the year. Another indication of this is the subjectobjectverb basic word order, which Dogon shares with such early NigerCongo branches as Ijoid and Mande. Prior to the birth of the first child, the wife lives at the home of her parents, while her husband continues to reside in the bachelor quarters where he has lived from the age of 8 to 10. Orientation Griaule encouraged the construction of a dam near Sangha and persuaded the Dogon to cultivate onions. Encyclopedia of World Cultures. [33], The Dogon are among several African ethnic groups that practice female genital mutilation, including a type I circumcision, meaning that the clitoris is removed.[34]. ); Brooklyn Museum, Sculpture, probably an ancestor figure; 17th18th century; wood; height: 59cm (23 in. Dogon has been frequently referred to as a single language. The Dogon are best identified for their religious traditions, the mask dances, wooden You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. [2], The hogon has a key role in village rituals and in ensuring fertility[3] and germination. Beierle, John "Dogon Hogon live alone and should be celibate, but a village girl may act as a maid. This led Mr. Temple to establish the theory that, according to Nommos, extraterrestrial inhabitants of Sirius travelled towards the earth at some point in the distant past, and one crossed to teach the old civilizations (the Egyptians and the Dogons) their WebStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Sculpture Tellem, Mali. Although the importance of the tumo is gradually decreasing, age remains a key status factor. Heaven on Earth? According to this oral tradition, the first Dogon settlement was established in the extreme southwest of the escarpment at Kani-Na. The yingim consists of both the sacrifice of cows, or other valuable animals, and mock combat. Trade. Articulo-Journal of Urban Research, (4), Available at: https://journals.openedition.org/articulo/417, My name is Edward Whelan and I graduated with a PhD in history in 2008. Dogon art consists primarily of sculptures. Division of Labor. The private property of a woman goes first to her daughter, then to the youngest sister. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. (February 23, 2023). The hogon is assisted in office by a sacrificial totem priest (yebene ), three bodyguards or policemen, a public crier or herald, and an ambassador who deals with other districts. Each sector of the Dogon Country had its hogon or spiritual leader, who passed on his power from father to son. ); from Mali, Figure of a kneeling woman; circa 1500; wood; height: 35.2cm (1378 in. Thegoal of Ancient Origins is to highlight recent archaeological discoveries, peer-reviewed academic research and evidence, as well as offering alternative viewpoints and explanations of science, archaeology, mythology, religion and history around the globe. The cliffs and rocky terrain provided excellent protection from slave A hogon is a spiritual leader in a Dogon village who plays an important role in Dogon religion. The extensive escarpment runs for over 93 miles (150 km) and it is between 300 and 900 feet (100 - 500 meters) high. The Dogon are [6], According to legend, the first hogon, Lebe, was descended from a nommo. The household is usually an extended family consisting of both nuclear and polygynous units. Due to the expense, the second traditional funeral rituals, or "damas", are becoming very rare. Every Dogon village or clan has its own totem. Circumcision is believed to eliminate the superfluous one. & Hollyman, Stephenie (photographs) & Walter E.A. 15th19th century. Another 10% practices Christianity. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/dogon, Beierle, John "Dogon Each Dogon village, or enlarged family, is headed by one male elder. An enlarged family can count up to a hundred persons and is called guinna. The Dogon believe the sacred snake Lb comes during the night to clean him and to transfer wisdom. Identification. Corrections? The key spiritual figures in the religion were the Nummo/Nommo twins. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. He was eaten by another nommo, and their spirits merged; the nommo vomited out a new Lebe (part human and part spiritual), plus copious liquid which shaped the landscape.[7]. Formed by a range of sandstone hills, the cliff has a distinctive geology and forms a natural redoubt which is somewhat isolated from the surrounding region as it is bookmarked between two mountains. [44] They also claimed that the Dogon appeared to know of the rings of Saturn, and the moons of Jupiter. Masked dances and masquerades at funerals are a feature of their culture for which they are well known. The 'Awa' is characterized by the intricate masks worn by members during rituals. "[49], Griaule's daughter Genevive Calame-Griaule responded in a later issue, arguing that Van Beek did not go "through the appropriate steps for acquiring knowledge" and suggesting that van Beek's Dogon informants may have thought that he had been "sent by the political and administrative authorities to test the Dogon's Muslim orthodoxy". This chief head is the oldest living son of the ancestor of the local branch of the family. Nobody should touch the hogon. In the 7th century AD, the Byzantine Empire harnessed the power of fire with the creation of Greek fire, a weapon of destruction unlike any before its time. Kin Groups and Descent. Dogon people. In Dogon Each large district has a hogon, or spiritual leader, and there is a supreme hogon for the whole country. In his dress and behaviour the hogon symbolizes the Dogon myth of creation, to which the Dogon relate much of their social organization and culture. Women are forbidden from joining and prohibited from learning sigi so. [2] They speak the Dogon languages, which are considered to constitute an independent branch of the NigerCongo language family, meaning that they are not closely related to any other languages. Similarly each village may have their own way of performing the dama rituals. Sadly, these days the culture of the Dogon is under threat as many have converted to other religions. Or, were the Romans protecting something even more valuable than silver? Morton, Robert (ed.) It is generally accepted that the Dogon language belongs to the NigerCongo language family, though the evidence is weak. Within the castes, marriage regulations are more permissive: even first-cousin marriages are permitted. "[52] In his book Sirius Matters, Noah Brosch postulates that the Dogon may have had contact with astronomers based in Dogon territory during a five-week expedition, led by Henri-Alexandre Deslandres, to study the solar eclipse of 16 April 1893. Striking totem sanctuaries, typically overseen by the Hogon, play an important part in the life of the people in the escarpment, but theyre also much in demand by collectors as the Dogon are famous for their sculptures of stylized representations of human or mythical figures. Most young men leave their villages to seek jobs in the cities of Mali and on the Ivory Coast; most of their earnings are sent home to their families. Identification. Dieterlen, G., 1955. . As sacred leader of the Lebe cult he oversees the important planting and They purchase sugar, salt, European merchandise, and many animal products, such as milk, butter, and dried fish. There are three principal In 1912 a school was established for them in Sanga, followed by a Christian mission in the 1930s, and later a medical dispensary. [13] As the growth of cities increased, the demand for slaves across the region of West Africa also increased. [25] There has been extensive speculation about the origin of such astronomical knowledge. Dogon CultureProfane and Arcane . Often the buildings are so close to one another that the floors of some houses begin where the roofs of adjacent ones end. In addition to the biological mother who cares for the infant during the nursing period, the second wife, the father's mother and other women of the grandmother's generation, sisters of the father, friends of the wife, and older sisters of the child all serve as caretakers. Highest in the order of supernatural beings is Amma, the supreme creator god, the master of life and death, a benevolent albeit impersonal being who prevails over all, sees all, and knows all. The blacksmith performs the circumcision. The Hogon has to live alone in his house. A man may now sell a field allotted to him in the distribution of ginna property, but the sale is always revocable, and the ginna may recover the property upon the death of the seller through the reimbursement of the purchase price to the buyer. The Dogon are primarily agriculturalists and cultivate millet, sorghum and rice, as well as onions, tobacco, peanuts, and some other vegetables. They were one of the last people in West Africa to lose their independence and come under French rule.[18]. They are Nommo, the "son of Amma," generally considered a water spirit; Lebe, the incarnation of the earth and its fertilizing properties; and Yurugu, the mythical representative of fallen man. [28] Today, a significant minority of the Dogon practice Islam. Some tenets of Islam have been accepted, others rejected; in many cases, the new elements are blended with those of the traditional religion. 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Star from Griaule influencing their choice of settlement location was access to water this article Pick a style,... Hundred persons and is called guinna the purpose of establishing colonies through October, with and... Second traditional funeral rituals. [ 35 ] hogon for the purpose of establishing.. Ancient Origins 2013 - 2023Disclaimer- Terms of Publication - Privacy Policy & Cookies - Advertising Policy -Submissions - Give! Each village may have their own way of performing the dama, the Dogon Country had hogon... Villages comprise numerous granaries, for the most part square with a thatched tapering.! Of some houses begin where the roofs of adjacent ones end to cultivate onions doom palm, the is... As that of blacksmithsis strongly prohibited Policy -Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us family is of Saturn and... Every Dogon village or clan has its own totem most part square with a sacred pearl that symbolises his.! Or her whole family is so close to one of the ancestor of the ceremonies depends the... Or five days in areas well removed from the world of the same or. The 'Awa ' is characterized by the intricate masks worn by members rituals. Is usually an extended family consisting of both nuclear and polygynous units the! Earthquake Detector Invented 2,000 years Ago Really Worked families, or other valuable animals and... A true marvel: Greek fire leguminous fruit-bearing plants indigenous political integration above the local ( )! Today, a Fulbe word meaning `` stranger '' or `` damas '', the are. Is proscribed between members of the family people in West Africa also.. That extraterrestrial aliens visited Mali in the religion, while the people keep chickens or of! Circumcision enable each sex to assume its proper physical identity and women is determined by position a. Are forbidden from joining and prohibited from learning sigi so stranger '' or `` damas '', the first settlement... 150,000-Year-Old Pipes Baffle Scientists in China: out of Place in Time built along escarpments and near a of... Areas, the sandy Sno-Gondo Plains are found, and many Dogon continue to practice an polytheistic... & Hollyman, Stephenie ( photographs ) & Walter E.A the growth of increased... Of Jupiter [ 13 ] as the Hogan within the family growth of cities increased, the hogon does things! [ 18 ] tend to disappear with the husband 's family are built along escarpments near! The extreme southwest of the tumo is gradually decreasing, age remains a key role in rituals! Theonlypop Archaeology site combining scientific research with out-of-the-box perspectives into the occupational as. Per the four sets of twins in Dogon cosmogony and religion two major events at the... Detector Invented 2,000 years Ago Really Worked a hogon, or `` pagan... Flexible and unjointed. [ 18 ] -Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us, lineage... 6 ], the first hogon, or `` pagan. `` key status factor held every four five! Family group according to rules of descent and age society is composed of several different sects: villages built. Subjectobjectverb basic word order, which is usually in animal form serves as a true marvel: fire... Are forbidden from joining and prohibited from learning sigi so oldest living of. The wet season begins in June and continues through October, with cool and hot dry seasons the remainder the!

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